Keburukan Dibalik Kebaikan
Maret 2009, hari yang cerah seperti biasa Ardi yang selalu datang telat ketika masuk sekolah karena rumahnya yang cukup jauh dari sekolah. Tapi itu tidak membuatnya kapok untuk datang telat karena memang dia malas datang lebih awal. Ardi memang memiliki sifat yang pemalas namun dia sebenarnya orang yang memiliki potensi diberbagai bidang. Ardi juga disenangi oleh teman-temannya sehingga wajar Ardi menjadi anak yang cukup gaul karena memiliki banyak teman. Tapi di situlah yang membuat dia semakin hanyut dalam pergaulan. Dia sangat memiliki sifat penasaran yang sangat dalam sehingga dia selalu mencoba hal-hal yang baru walaupun dia tau mungkin akibatnya akan menjadi negatif.
Dia memiliki seorang sahabat yang sangat mengerti kondisi dia disaat apapun. Angga yang telah dia kenal sejak bangku SMP hingga sekarang SMA yang kebetulan memang mereka sekolah di satu sekolah lagi yang sama. Ardi yang memiliki wajah cukup tampan membuat banyak para perempuan menyukainya. Tapi dengan ketampanannya itu tidak membuat ia merasa sombong, ia selalu hormat kepada perempuan terutama para sahabat-sahabat perempuannya. Ia sangat di kenal baik oleh semua orang
Di balik semua sisi kebaikannya itu ternyata Ardi menyimpan banyak rahasia yang tidak di ketahui oleh semua sahabat-sahabatnya. Sahabat-sahabatnya selalu mengira ia orang yang tidak mungkin mempunyai keburukan yang cukup parah. Ia sengaja menyimpan rahasianya karena jika sahabat-sahabatnya mengetahui akan rahasianya.mungkin ia akan di jauhi oleh semua orang terutama para sahabatnya yang sangat sudah kenal ia dengan baik. Namun tak selamanya ia sanggup menyimpan rahasianya itu sendiri,ia butuh seseorang yang bisa ia ajak bicara mengenai hal itu
Tak diduga ia adalah seorang penjajah cinta terutama dalam hal yang intim. Berawal dari rasa penasaran yang sangat mendalam hingga akhirnya membuat ia candu akan hal itu.hanyut dalam kenikmatan sesaat. Walaupun ia tau bahwa yang ia lakukan itu adalah sebuah perbuatan yang tidak terpuji namun ia sangat sulit untuk tidak melakukan hal itu. Ia sudah meniduri beberapa perempuan yang ia kenal tanpa di ketahui oleh semua orang bahkan keluarganya sendiri. Ia sudah hanyut dalam hal ini selama bertahun-tahun hingga membuatnya merasa. Orang-orang di sekitarnya banyak juga yang kadang suka cerita tentang pengalaman mereka akan hal itu, walaupun mereka tidak tahu bahwa Ardi juga sudah hanyut dalam hal itu.
Perasaan bersalah yang terus manghantuinya membuatnya jera dan tak sanggup lagi untuk menyimpannya sendirian. Ia butuh seorang yang bisa merubah dan mengeluarkan ia dari dunia yang di anggapnya kelam. Awalnya ia sangat merasa malu untuk menceritakan tentang hal ini, namun karena ia telah lelah sekali sehingga ia memutuskan untuk cerita kepada Angga. Kenapa Angga karena ia pkir hanya Angga yang bisa mengerti situasi ia walau bagaimanapun.
Akhirnya pada saat jam pulang sekolah dimana semua sahabat-sahabat Ardi telah pulang, di kantin Ardi cerita kepada Angga tentang rahasianya.
Ardi : Ngga w mau cerita nih sama lo. Tapi lo diem-diem aja yak!
Angga : Sok cerita aja. Tenang cerita lo aman ko, gua petiin tar cerita lo. Bang Mie ayam
Satu (angga sambil memesan mie ayam).
Ardi : Gua binggung, sekarang gua jadi ketagihan berhubungan intim sama cewek gua.
Angga : Hah!!! Kacau lo!!! Ko bisa?
Angga sangat terkejut akan hal itu. Ia sangat tidak menyangka bahwa Ardi dapat melakukan hal seperti itu. Tak pernah terlintas sedikitpun di pikiran Angga ia akan melakukan hal itu. Awal Angga binggung harus bagaimana untuk menanggapi masalah Ardi yang cukup membuatnya kaget. Namun Angga sangat mengerti kenapa Ardi sampai bisa melakukan hal itu. Yang Angga takuti hanya bagaimana jika orang lain mengetahui hal ini terutama sahabat-sahabat Ardi yang juga sahabat Angga. Namun Angga telah berjanji tidak akan memberi tahukan tentang hal ini kepada siapapun. Mie ayam yang telah di pesan Angga tidak di makan karena ia sangat terkejut akan hal ini. Angga hanya bisa memberi saran kepada Ardi karena masalahnya ia telah hanyut dalam kenikmatannya.
Sampai kapanpun tidak ada orang lain yang mengetahui rahasia Ardi, mereka selalu mengira Ardi adalah orang yang sangat baik dan tidak mungkin melakukan yang sangat memalukan tersebut. Seseorang yang di kenal sangat baik namun menyimpan suatu keburukan yang dapat menghapus semua kebaikan yang orang ketahui selama ini dan kebaikan yang telah ia lakukan untuk orang lain.
Senin, 11 Oktober 2010
Senin, 17 Mei 2010
This is about ATTICUS CLOTHING
History
Los Angeles based Atticus Clothing is the original music inspired streetwear brand. For nearly ten years Atticus has been the brand of choice for today’s youth and the bands they love.
Story
Atticus Clothing started in the spring of 2001 on the back lot of a music video shoot in Southern California. The idea had been tossed around for a while of starting a clothing line. But it was on that day, just before having to go out in front of the cameras in someone else’s clothing that represented someone else’s ideas, that the idea was set in motion, and Atticus was born.
Name
The name Atticus came from several places. The literary classic “To Kill a Mocking Bird”, (which also influenced the bird logo), and patron of the arts Herodes Atticus, who spent the bulk of his fortune supporting the arts, building theaters for music and plays in ancient Greece.
Philosophy
The intention was to create a clothing line that didn’t label the wearer as anything but an individual that you couldn’t just look at the person and write them off without even talking to them. The same can be said about music, music can transcend all genres, ages, and races.
History
Los Angeles based Atticus Clothing is the original music inspired streetwear brand. For nearly ten years Atticus has been the brand of choice for today’s youth and the bands they love.
Story
Atticus Clothing started in the spring of 2001 on the back lot of a music video shoot in Southern California. The idea had been tossed around for a while of starting a clothing line. But it was on that day, just before having to go out in front of the cameras in someone else’s clothing that represented someone else’s ideas, that the idea was set in motion, and Atticus was born.
Name
The name Atticus came from several places. The literary classic “To Kill a Mocking Bird”, (which also influenced the bird logo), and patron of the arts Herodes Atticus, who spent the bulk of his fortune supporting the arts, building theaters for music and plays in ancient Greece.
Philosophy
The intention was to create a clothing line that didn’t label the wearer as anything but an individual that you couldn’t just look at the person and write them off without even talking to them. The same can be said about music, music can transcend all genres, ages, and races.
Macbeth Footwear
Macbeth Footwear is a Southern Californian brand of footwear, apparel and accessories, including vegan and organic products. One of its founders is Tom DeLonge, member of bands Blink-182 and Angels & Airwaves, who was also associated with Atticus Clothing.
History
Macbeth Footwear (previously known as "Macbeth Athletics") is a company founded by Tom DeLonge and Mark Hoppus of Blink-182. They founded the company in 2002-2003. The company sells primarily footwear, but also sells t-shirts, sweatshirts, and sunglasses (among other accessories). Macbeth is a mostly vegan company and is heavily influenced by music and other creative arts. It has two logos, one is the signature Macbeth Pennant as well as a Griffin (a lion with wings). Macbeths main online source is Loserkids.com, which was also founded by Tom DeLonge and Mark Hoppus. They had also previously founded Atticus Clothing.
Mark Hoppus sold his share in all three companies after the indefinite hiatus of Blink-182.
Macbeth Footwear is a Southern Californian brand of footwear, apparel and accessories, including vegan and organic products. One of its founders is Tom DeLonge, member of bands Blink-182 and Angels & Airwaves, who was also associated with Atticus Clothing.
History
Macbeth Footwear (previously known as "Macbeth Athletics") is a company founded by Tom DeLonge and Mark Hoppus of Blink-182. They founded the company in 2002-2003. The company sells primarily footwear, but also sells t-shirts, sweatshirts, and sunglasses (among other accessories). Macbeth is a mostly vegan company and is heavily influenced by music and other creative arts. It has two logos, one is the signature Macbeth Pennant as well as a Griffin (a lion with wings). Macbeths main online source is Loserkids.com, which was also founded by Tom DeLonge and Mark Hoppus. They had also previously founded Atticus Clothing.
Mark Hoppus sold his share in all three companies after the indefinite hiatus of Blink-182.
What is global warming?
Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It happens when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earth’s atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take the change, so they die.
What is the greenhouse effect?
The greenhouse effect is when the temperature rises because the sun’s heat and light is trapped in the earth’s atmosphere. This is like when heat is trapped in a car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter when it is out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light from the sun can get into the car, by going through the windows, but it can’t get back out. This is what the greenhouse effect does to the earth. The heat and light can get through the atmosphere, but it can’t get out. As a result, the temperature rises.
The sun’s heat can get into the car through the windows but is then trapped. This makes what ever the place might be, a greenhouse, a car, a building, or the earth’s atmosphere, hotter. This diagram shows the heat coming into a car as visible light (light you can see) and infrared light (heat). Once the light is inside the car, it is trapped and the heat builds up, just like it does in the earth’s atmosphere.
Sometimes the temperature can change in a way that helps us. The greenhouse effect makes the earth appropriate for people to live on. Without it, the earth would be freezing, or on the other hand it would be burning hot. It would be freezing at night because the sun would be down. We would not get the sun’s heat and light to make the night somewhat warm. During the day, especially during the summer, it would be burning because the sun would be up with no atmosphere to filter it, so people, plants, and animals would be exposed to all the light and heat.
Although the greenhouse effect makes the earth able to have people living on it, if there gets to be too many gases, the earth can get unusually warmer, and many plants, animals, and people will die. They would die because there would be less food (plants like corn, wheat, and other vegetables and fruits). This would happen because the plants would not be able to take the heat. This would cause us to have less food to eat, but it would also limit the food that animals have. With less food, like grass, for the animals that we need to survive (like cows) we would even have less food. Gradually, people, plants, and animals would all die of hunger.
What are greenhouse gasses?
Greenhouse gasses are gasses are in the earth’s atmosphere that collect heat and light from the sun. With too many greenhouse gasses in the air, the earth’s atmosphere will trap too much heat and the earth will get too hot. As a result people, animals, and plants would die because the heat would be too strong.
What is global warming doing to the environment?
Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming makes the sea rise, and when the sea rises, the water covers many low land islands. This is a big problem for many of the plants, animals, and people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some of them to die. When they die, the animals lose a source of food, along with their habitat. Although animals have a better ability to adapt to what happens than plants do, they may die also. When the plants and animals die, people lose two sources of food, plant food and animal food. They may also lose their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or die. This would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so on.
The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as well. Many things that are happening to the ocean are linked to global warming. One thing that is happening is warm water, caused from global warming, is harming and killing algae in the ocean.
Algae is a producer that you can see floating on the top of the water. (A producer is something that makes food for other animals through photosynthesis, like grass.) This floating green algae is food to many consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the producers.) One kind of a consumer is small fish. There are many others like crabs, some whales, and many other animals. Fewer algae is a problem because there is less food for us and many animals in the sea.
Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals and plants. It is killing algae, but it is also destroying many huge forests. The pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid rain. Acid rain gradually destroys almost everything it touches. Global warming is also causing many more fires that wipe out whole forests. This happens because global warming can make the earth very hot. In forests, some plants and trees leaves can be so dry that they catch on fire.
What causes global warming?
Many things cause global warming. One thing that causes global warming is electrical pollution. Electricity causes pollution in many ways, some worse than others. In most cases, fossil fuels are burned to create electricity. Fossil fuels are made of dead plants and animals. Some examples of fossil fuels are oil and petroleum. Many pollutants (chemicals that pollute the air, water, and land) are sent into the air when fossil fuels are burned. Some of these chemicals are called greenhouse gasses.
We use these sources of energy much more than the sources that give off less pollution. Petroleum, one of the sources of energy, is used a lot. It is used for transportation, making electricity, and making many other things. Although this source of energy gives off a lot of pollution, it is used for 38% of the United States’ energy.
Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It happens when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earth’s atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take the change, so they die.
What is the greenhouse effect?
The greenhouse effect is when the temperature rises because the sun’s heat and light is trapped in the earth’s atmosphere. This is like when heat is trapped in a car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter when it is out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light from the sun can get into the car, by going through the windows, but it can’t get back out. This is what the greenhouse effect does to the earth. The heat and light can get through the atmosphere, but it can’t get out. As a result, the temperature rises.
The sun’s heat can get into the car through the windows but is then trapped. This makes what ever the place might be, a greenhouse, a car, a building, or the earth’s atmosphere, hotter. This diagram shows the heat coming into a car as visible light (light you can see) and infrared light (heat). Once the light is inside the car, it is trapped and the heat builds up, just like it does in the earth’s atmosphere.
Sometimes the temperature can change in a way that helps us. The greenhouse effect makes the earth appropriate for people to live on. Without it, the earth would be freezing, or on the other hand it would be burning hot. It would be freezing at night because the sun would be down. We would not get the sun’s heat and light to make the night somewhat warm. During the day, especially during the summer, it would be burning because the sun would be up with no atmosphere to filter it, so people, plants, and animals would be exposed to all the light and heat.
Although the greenhouse effect makes the earth able to have people living on it, if there gets to be too many gases, the earth can get unusually warmer, and many plants, animals, and people will die. They would die because there would be less food (plants like corn, wheat, and other vegetables and fruits). This would happen because the plants would not be able to take the heat. This would cause us to have less food to eat, but it would also limit the food that animals have. With less food, like grass, for the animals that we need to survive (like cows) we would even have less food. Gradually, people, plants, and animals would all die of hunger.
What are greenhouse gasses?
Greenhouse gasses are gasses are in the earth’s atmosphere that collect heat and light from the sun. With too many greenhouse gasses in the air, the earth’s atmosphere will trap too much heat and the earth will get too hot. As a result people, animals, and plants would die because the heat would be too strong.
What is global warming doing to the environment?
Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming makes the sea rise, and when the sea rises, the water covers many low land islands. This is a big problem for many of the plants, animals, and people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some of them to die. When they die, the animals lose a source of food, along with their habitat. Although animals have a better ability to adapt to what happens than plants do, they may die also. When the plants and animals die, people lose two sources of food, plant food and animal food. They may also lose their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or die. This would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so on.
The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as well. Many things that are happening to the ocean are linked to global warming. One thing that is happening is warm water, caused from global warming, is harming and killing algae in the ocean.
Algae is a producer that you can see floating on the top of the water. (A producer is something that makes food for other animals through photosynthesis, like grass.) This floating green algae is food to many consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the producers.) One kind of a consumer is small fish. There are many others like crabs, some whales, and many other animals. Fewer algae is a problem because there is less food for us and many animals in the sea.
Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals and plants. It is killing algae, but it is also destroying many huge forests. The pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid rain. Acid rain gradually destroys almost everything it touches. Global warming is also causing many more fires that wipe out whole forests. This happens because global warming can make the earth very hot. In forests, some plants and trees leaves can be so dry that they catch on fire.
What causes global warming?
Many things cause global warming. One thing that causes global warming is electrical pollution. Electricity causes pollution in many ways, some worse than others. In most cases, fossil fuels are burned to create electricity. Fossil fuels are made of dead plants and animals. Some examples of fossil fuels are oil and petroleum. Many pollutants (chemicals that pollute the air, water, and land) are sent into the air when fossil fuels are burned. Some of these chemicals are called greenhouse gasses.
We use these sources of energy much more than the sources that give off less pollution. Petroleum, one of the sources of energy, is used a lot. It is used for transportation, making electricity, and making many other things. Although this source of energy gives off a lot of pollution, it is used for 38% of the United States’ energy.
Jumat, 14 Mei 2010
How To Teach Speaking
The first thing to keep in mind is that when we are helping our language students learn to speak English, we are not actually teaching them to speak. Unless they are infants, they already know how to do that. What we are really helping them with falls into three categories
1. improving fluency (speaking smoothly)
2. improving pronunciation (saying words properly)
3. improving enunciation (Saying words/phrases clearly - I think this includes word and sentence intonation)
Some would say that vocabulary, grammar, and cultural usage also fall into how we teach speaking, but I'd say that while they are critical, they are not only in the domain of speaking. Speaking is about using our mouth and vocal cords to make sounds that people understand as language. It certainly involves other elements like grammar and vocabulary, but they aren't the core of it.
So, back to the main question of how to teach speaking. Let's look at each of the three elements I mentioned above
Improving Fluency
Fluency comes from practice - plain and simple. However it needs to be practice that involves extended use of the language and use of extended sentences. You can not build fluency by repeating single words or short phrases. Fluency at its heart relates to being able to speak for longer periods of time in a smooth way. Broadly speaking, here are a few things that can help build fluency:
1. speeches or presentations
2. group discussions
3. role plays
4. negotiations and debates
5. interviews and meetings
6. chatting in small groups
Improving Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the ability to say words properly with the correct sounds in the correct places. This is a skill that can take a VERY long to develop, but with consistent work and practice, it can be done. There are two keys to proper pronunciation 1) tons of native speaker input and 2) tons of speaking by the learner with native speakers. However, practice and lessons that target specific trouble areas can make a huge difference in a student's ability to deal with issues in pronunciation.
1. working on specific vowels
2. working on trouble consonants (e.g. th for French speakers)
3. working on understanding movement and location of mouth and tongue when making sounds
Improving Enunciation
Enunciation is speaking clearly - perhaps better understood by its opposite which is mumbling or slurring words. Enunciation is a very important aspect of speaking in that poor enunciation can make someone almost impossible to understand. Again improvements in enunciation come from exposure to native speakers, and plenty of natural practice. Of course focused work targeting problem areas can help a great deal as well. Things that can be done to help with enunciation include:
1. focused work on trouble word combinations
2. working on reductions (want to –> wanna)
3. working on sentence level stress points
4. working on word level stress points (e.g. differences between noun/verb forms of same word record/record)
5. working on sentence level intonation patterns
As you may have noticed I haven't provided any specific lesson ideas on how to teach speaking. There are literally hundreds of different activities that you can use in myraid different situations. There isn't one right way, or even one right sequence. Just be sure to give your students plenty of time for talking freely, supplement this with targeted exercises and practice, and actively encourage your students to listen to and speak with as many native speakers as they possibly can on a regular basis.
The first thing to keep in mind is that when we are helping our language students learn to speak English, we are not actually teaching them to speak. Unless they are infants, they already know how to do that. What we are really helping them with falls into three categories
1. improving fluency (speaking smoothly)
2. improving pronunciation (saying words properly)
3. improving enunciation (Saying words/phrases clearly - I think this includes word and sentence intonation)
Some would say that vocabulary, grammar, and cultural usage also fall into how we teach speaking, but I'd say that while they are critical, they are not only in the domain of speaking. Speaking is about using our mouth and vocal cords to make sounds that people understand as language. It certainly involves other elements like grammar and vocabulary, but they aren't the core of it.
So, back to the main question of how to teach speaking. Let's look at each of the three elements I mentioned above
Improving Fluency
Fluency comes from practice - plain and simple. However it needs to be practice that involves extended use of the language and use of extended sentences. You can not build fluency by repeating single words or short phrases. Fluency at its heart relates to being able to speak for longer periods of time in a smooth way. Broadly speaking, here are a few things that can help build fluency:
1. speeches or presentations
2. group discussions
3. role plays
4. negotiations and debates
5. interviews and meetings
6. chatting in small groups
Improving Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the ability to say words properly with the correct sounds in the correct places. This is a skill that can take a VERY long to develop, but with consistent work and practice, it can be done. There are two keys to proper pronunciation 1) tons of native speaker input and 2) tons of speaking by the learner with native speakers. However, practice and lessons that target specific trouble areas can make a huge difference in a student's ability to deal with issues in pronunciation.
1. working on specific vowels
2. working on trouble consonants (e.g. th for French speakers)
3. working on understanding movement and location of mouth and tongue when making sounds
Improving Enunciation
Enunciation is speaking clearly - perhaps better understood by its opposite which is mumbling or slurring words. Enunciation is a very important aspect of speaking in that poor enunciation can make someone almost impossible to understand. Again improvements in enunciation come from exposure to native speakers, and plenty of natural practice. Of course focused work targeting problem areas can help a great deal as well. Things that can be done to help with enunciation include:
1. focused work on trouble word combinations
2. working on reductions (want to –> wanna)
3. working on sentence level stress points
4. working on word level stress points (e.g. differences between noun/verb forms of same word record/record)
5. working on sentence level intonation patterns
As you may have noticed I haven't provided any specific lesson ideas on how to teach speaking. There are literally hundreds of different activities that you can use in myraid different situations. There isn't one right way, or even one right sequence. Just be sure to give your students plenty of time for talking freely, supplement this with targeted exercises and practice, and actively encourage your students to listen to and speak with as many native speakers as they possibly can on a regular basis.
How to Teach Reading
Step 1
Increase vocabulary. Refer to "The Reading Teacher's Book of Lists" for a list of the 1000 most common words in the English language. A person only needs to see a word approximately 10-20 times before it is committed to memory. Teach these high frequency words by using flashcards or an overhead projector. Teach 100 at a time. Once the students have mastered the first 100, then move on to the next batch.
Step 2
Enhance reading comprehension by teaching students pre-reading strategies. Show them how to use highlighters to mark important main points, how to annotate text with a question and comment in the margin (or on a separate piece of paper), and how to stop reading when they are confused.
Step 3
Model effective reading strategies. It is important to read aloud to the students. As you read, be sure to stop now and then to ask questions about the text or comment on a particular narrative moment. Point out main points and use an overhead projector to model how to highlight and annotate a text.
Step 4
Put the students into groups. Give each student control over what text she will read and allow her the opportunity to work in a team in order to increase reading comprehension. Give each student in the group a responsibility - one is in charge of vocabulary, the other asking questions about the text, another summarizing the text, and another presenting all those topics to the class.
Step 5
Use charts, lists, and reading response logs. These are useful tools for students when they are struggling to read correctly. A reading response log will allow a student the opportunity to engage with the text on a personal level and increase his comprehension.
Step 1
Increase vocabulary. Refer to "The Reading Teacher's Book of Lists" for a list of the 1000 most common words in the English language. A person only needs to see a word approximately 10-20 times before it is committed to memory. Teach these high frequency words by using flashcards or an overhead projector. Teach 100 at a time. Once the students have mastered the first 100, then move on to the next batch.
Step 2
Enhance reading comprehension by teaching students pre-reading strategies. Show them how to use highlighters to mark important main points, how to annotate text with a question and comment in the margin (or on a separate piece of paper), and how to stop reading when they are confused.
Step 3
Model effective reading strategies. It is important to read aloud to the students. As you read, be sure to stop now and then to ask questions about the text or comment on a particular narrative moment. Point out main points and use an overhead projector to model how to highlight and annotate a text.
Step 4
Put the students into groups. Give each student control over what text she will read and allow her the opportunity to work in a team in order to increase reading comprehension. Give each student in the group a responsibility - one is in charge of vocabulary, the other asking questions about the text, another summarizing the text, and another presenting all those topics to the class.
Step 5
Use charts, lists, and reading response logs. These are useful tools for students when they are struggling to read correctly. A reading response log will allow a student the opportunity to engage with the text on a personal level and increase his comprehension.
Sabtu, 08 Mei 2010
How To teach Listening
Listening is the language modality that is used most frequently. It has been estimated that adults spend almost half their communication time listening, and students may receive as much as 90% of their in-school information through listening to instructors and to one another. Often, however, language learners do not recognize the level of effort that goes into developing listening ability.
Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners actively involve themselves in the interpretation of what they hear, bringing their own background knowledge and linguistic knowledge to bear on the information contained in the aural text. Not all listening is the same; casual greetings, for example, require a different sort of listening capability than do academic lectures. Language learning requires intentional listening that employs strategies for identifying sounds and making meaning from them.
Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, and television), a message, and a receiver (the listener). Listeners often must process messages as they come, even if they are still processing what they have just heard, without backtracking or looking ahead. In addition, listeners must cope with the sender's choice of vocabulary, structure, and rate of delivery. The complexity of the listening process is magnified in second language contexts, where the receiver also has incomplete control of the language.
Given the importance of listening in language learning and teaching it is essential for language teachers to help their students become effective listeners. In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: those that learners are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.
Listening is the language modality that is used most frequently. It has been estimated that adults spend almost half their communication time listening, and students may receive as much as 90% of their in-school information through listening to instructors and to one another. Often, however, language learners do not recognize the level of effort that goes into developing listening ability.
Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners actively involve themselves in the interpretation of what they hear, bringing their own background knowledge and linguistic knowledge to bear on the information contained in the aural text. Not all listening is the same; casual greetings, for example, require a different sort of listening capability than do academic lectures. Language learning requires intentional listening that employs strategies for identifying sounds and making meaning from them.
Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, and television), a message, and a receiver (the listener). Listeners often must process messages as they come, even if they are still processing what they have just heard, without backtracking or looking ahead. In addition, listeners must cope with the sender's choice of vocabulary, structure, and rate of delivery. The complexity of the listening process is magnified in second language contexts, where the receiver also has incomplete control of the language.
Given the importance of listening in language learning and teaching it is essential for language teachers to help their students become effective listeners. In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: those that learners are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.
How can you teach writing?
Below is just my simple outline of how I see the Writing process and the steps involved in teaching writing.
Of course, there are a number of ways how to teach writing and the specific writing skills and I will deal with those at the end of the page. Firstly I want to describe the general progression involved in the writing process.
1. Tracing letters and Teaching the correct letter formations.
2. Copying sentences – copying punctuation.
3. Writing from Dictation.
4. Copying larger selections.
5. Writing from Dictation of large selections.
6. Copying own narrations.
7. Writing own narrations.
8. Teach Writing with Style.
9. Teach Writing Forms.
Tracing letters and Teaching the correct letter formations.
Firstly you need to know how to teach writing prepartaion. This is the beginning step, which should be done with great care, especially emphasizing the correct pencil grip. It is harder to correct bad habits, so it is better to begin in the right way to start with.
The Light Educational Ministries Phonics Manual shows you how you can teach writing formations and lists "Three P's of Writing Preparation: Posture, Pencil Grip and Paper Position."
The LEM manual lists these important rules-
• Posture
• Sit with buttocks pushed to the back of chair.
• Have feet flat on floor (use a footstool is the chair is too high).
• Head should be held up, not drooping forward. A drooped head strains neck and back muscles.
• Back should be straight, with the trunk leaning forward from the hip joint for a comfortable writing position.
• Pencil Grip
• Use a six-sided (hexagonal) pencil. Hold it between thumb and middle finger. The pencil should be held lightly enough so that it can be pulled out of the hand easily, but firmly enough to maintain good control. Hand and finger muscles should not be tightly tensed.
• Write with the point of the pencil and hold it just above the shaven area.
• Paper position
• The side edge of the paper should be parallel to the arm holding the pencil. The other hand should rest above the writing to steady and move the paper up and down as needed.
• The left-handed student will do the same, but the paper will be at the opposite angle. Be sure that the left-handed student rests his pencil hand below the baseline, not above the writing.
More information can be found in the LEM Phonics Manaul.
I have found the pencil supports beneficial to teach children the correct placement of their fingers. It is good also to encourage them to write large letters either on a whiteboard, in a sand tray, or on a chalk board, or in paints etc.
The only Handwriting books I have used and enjoyed using are the “A Reason for Handwriting”. These books are based on Scripture verses. They teach correct formations over Days 1-4, copying the words in a Bible verse, and then culminating in Day five in which they write the whole Bible verse on a Scripture Border Sheet. This program covers how to teach writing concentrating on both the letter formations and words but at the same time, learning Scripture.
1. Copying words.
Once your child has begun to form their letters, let them copy some easy words.- This can be done in a variety of ways- begin an alphabet book with cut out or drawn pictures of the letter, and the child can copy the appropriate word under the picture. Number books – copying the words and drawing the correct number. Colour books. Family books – writing the names of the members of the family under photos. Journals – a drawing of their experience with your writing, out of which they copy a few words. The ideas are endless.
At this time, you can begin to enjoy the whole idea of lapbooks and very simple ideas of fold-outs for delightful projects, in which the child can write a few words here and there. These can be a very enjoyable way how you can teach writing in the context of other subjects.
2. Copying sentences – copying punctuation.
As your child becomes ready to copy more than just one word, they can copy sentences. From the beginning, a high standard must be set. The books they create must be treated as a very special keepsake, and so all their work, must be done in the best manner possible. I would write my sentence on their page and they would copy the words exactly under what I have written. Now they need to understand that each word needs its own space. The beauty of copying is that you do not need anything apart from what you are already using. Copying is an extension of whatever the child is listening to. Copywork should come from the most excellent literature, and therefore, the Bible is an excellent source. My children have always had a small Bible Copybook in which they copy the Bible verses which they are memorizing. In this way you can focus on how to teach writing at the same time as learning scripture.
Apart from our Bible Copybook, we have a Writing Treasure which is a blank notebook (Art book) into which they copy poetry and excerpts from literature.
Through the years, I have selected poems, which I would like all of my children to have in their Writing Treasures, and organized them year by year. Sometimes, we all add the same poem, but mostly the children are working on their own poems. The Literature they include in their Writing Treasures are from the books we are reading. It may be an historical fiction novel, a biography or another excellent source of literature. We copy Aesop’s fables from time to time also.
Is there a way to teach writing skills such as punctuation, correct spelling, use of quotation marks and so on in a simple approach?
Copybook is a very effortless way of teaching a number of things. It is an easy way to teach correct punctuation. The child needs to copy exactly what you have written and so they need to copy the capital letter and the fullstop. As the difficulty of the passage increases, there are other aspects of punctuation to be taught in the context of real writing- commas, quotation marks, semi-colons, colons and so on.
Another benefit of simple copying is that children are seeing words written correctly, and are copying them in correct spelling. They may not be reading fluently, yet their eyes are constantly observing how letter patterns are formed, and also subconsciously realizing that there are no patterns of d followed by b, or t followed by f and so on.
3. Writing from Dictation.
Here I have the theory, but I find it hard to put into practice. Ideally, we copy a passage on Monday and write it from dictation on Tuesday. For some reason, this theory is very hard to put into practice. I do believe in the value of it though.
Dictation is simply the teacher saying the passage out loud and the student writing it. At first, you will need to re-inforce the punctuation of a sentence and this is part of the learning process. “Remember, when we begin a sentence we begin with a capital letter. The first word I want you to write is ‘The’. ‘The’ begins with a ‘t’, so make sure your first letter is a capital.” This procedure must also take place with the introduction of every new concept. As time goes on, the child will not need your prompting and you can introduce the dictation time by saying that this will be a test to see if they know how to begin and end a sentence.
I have read of others who copy a passage on one day, and then the child either writes the passage from memory the next day, checks and corrects it or writes it from dictation, checks and corrects it. This is continued through the week, until the passage is written correctly. By this time, the passage is mostly stored in their memory also. I have not used dictation in this way, but I am tempted to give it a go, because it works not only on good writing mechanics, but also forces precise memory skills. Each week, they would be memorizing an excellent excerpt of literature or the Bible. That’s worthwhile!
4. Copying larger selections.
You can continue to teach writing by selecting larger and more difficult passages and including different forms of writing. (letters, essays, poems, argumentative essays, speeches, sermons)
5. Writing from Dictation of large selections.
The selections of writing and the level of difficulty can increase as the child matures in their ability. It is very important that you train your child to listen very carefully to the passage being dictated and only repeat the line twice so that they must pay attention. I have also taped my dictation passages (as I do my spelling lists) and given it to them to listen to and write. This also frees you up to attend to another child.
6. Copying own narrations.
Narration is the simple tool of asking your child to “narrate” or “Tell back” to you whatever he or she has read or listened to. Narration is so simple and so effective. You can and should begin to ask your child to narrate when they are very young and continue to do so. At a young age, you can ask them what the story was about and you would physically write their words on paper for them. They may illustrate the page. Alternatively, you may decide to type it for them. As their writing skills increase they can copy their own narration. I would suggest that this is initially done by writing their own words on a paper and leaving a line for them to copy the words directly underneath. When that skill is achieved, they may be able to copy their own narration from the board, or from a separate piece of paper.
Narration is an excellent tool. It forces the child to organize their thoughts. They need to sequence ideas and construct sentences. They need to draw on their memory and learn to express their thoughts. They need to choose words carefully and a child who has listened intently will often repeat the colourful language he has just heard. This increases their own vocabulary. Not every narration needs to be written down. It is firstly an oral skill, an extremely important oral skill which is needed as a precursor for writing.
7. Writing own narrations.
Narration can be done in many ways. It is a way to teach writing across all subject areas. It is the most effectual tool to see what your child has learned after they have read (or listened to) an assigned passage from a Science book, Historical fiction novel, History Text, or Literature. However, it can be used wherever reading takes place. Your child may be reading about nouns in a grammar text. You may ask him to read the information and then tell you all the sorts of nouns there are (i.e. common, proper, abstract…) The narration can be as broad or as specific as you desire. You can ask about what happened (broad) or ask them to describe how 'Character A' felt after…..(specific). Here are some Creative Writing Prompts or Narration Starters from Literature- Questions to ask after a literature reading or whole book.
In our home, my children have narrated to me since they were very little- as soon as they can talk, they can "tell" things back to you. You can ask them to tell you about any story or poem you read – from early nursery rhymes to fairy tales. Depending on the time available, their narrations may be written out into special books or may just be an oral narration. Even when your child narrates orally, you are still teaching writing skills.
We usually begin by narrating their own Bible Story Book. As we read the Bible stories, they narrate what happened and I copy their words into their own book. I use A4 Visual Arts Diaries for most of their subject areas, and I write the narration and they illustrate it. The beauty of this is that they have their own Bible Story book written by them and a lovely keepsake for themselves. This can also be done with Aesop’s fables – and made into a book.
Most of the time a child can be prompted to narrate by just asking the child to tell what the passage was about. Sometimes, however, another prompt may be needed. There are many different creative writing prompts or narration starters which can help your child to begin a narration.
8. How to Teach Writing with Style.
Style is all about learning how to write effectively and with clarity. A child who has been taught to narrate from early on, has already learned to sequence and construct sentences and thoughts. This is a fantastic advantage.
Teaching Writing: Structure and Style is a video seminar for teachers and parents presenting a system of structural models and stylistic techniques applicable for students of all ages and aptitudes
Stylistic elements add interest to writing.Adding stylistic elements in order to teach writing are ways of enhancing your writing and adding variety. I have a specific writing lesson every week and in this time slot, I slowly build on the list of elements we can use to add interest to our writing. It is too overwhelming to deal with all the elements at once, but when they are introduced slowly and referred to each week, they can become a part of your child’s writing
Teach Writing Forms.
All the above steps deal with how to teach writing mechanics. It is also important to know how to teach writing Forms. Here children can find the type of writing in which they can shine. Writing is fun and exciting, a way to explore words, and inspire others. By teaching different forms of writing, the child can experiment with letter writing, poetry, play-writing, advertising, essays and so on.
Below is just my simple outline of how I see the Writing process and the steps involved in teaching writing.
Of course, there are a number of ways how to teach writing and the specific writing skills and I will deal with those at the end of the page. Firstly I want to describe the general progression involved in the writing process.
1. Tracing letters and Teaching the correct letter formations.
2. Copying sentences – copying punctuation.
3. Writing from Dictation.
4. Copying larger selections.
5. Writing from Dictation of large selections.
6. Copying own narrations.
7. Writing own narrations.
8. Teach Writing with Style.
9. Teach Writing Forms.
Tracing letters and Teaching the correct letter formations.
Firstly you need to know how to teach writing prepartaion. This is the beginning step, which should be done with great care, especially emphasizing the correct pencil grip. It is harder to correct bad habits, so it is better to begin in the right way to start with.
The Light Educational Ministries Phonics Manual shows you how you can teach writing formations and lists "Three P's of Writing Preparation: Posture, Pencil Grip and Paper Position."
The LEM manual lists these important rules-
• Posture
• Sit with buttocks pushed to the back of chair.
• Have feet flat on floor (use a footstool is the chair is too high).
• Head should be held up, not drooping forward. A drooped head strains neck and back muscles.
• Back should be straight, with the trunk leaning forward from the hip joint for a comfortable writing position.
• Pencil Grip
• Use a six-sided (hexagonal) pencil. Hold it between thumb and middle finger. The pencil should be held lightly enough so that it can be pulled out of the hand easily, but firmly enough to maintain good control. Hand and finger muscles should not be tightly tensed.
• Write with the point of the pencil and hold it just above the shaven area.
• Paper position
• The side edge of the paper should be parallel to the arm holding the pencil. The other hand should rest above the writing to steady and move the paper up and down as needed.
• The left-handed student will do the same, but the paper will be at the opposite angle. Be sure that the left-handed student rests his pencil hand below the baseline, not above the writing.
More information can be found in the LEM Phonics Manaul.
I have found the pencil supports beneficial to teach children the correct placement of their fingers. It is good also to encourage them to write large letters either on a whiteboard, in a sand tray, or on a chalk board, or in paints etc.
The only Handwriting books I have used and enjoyed using are the “A Reason for Handwriting”. These books are based on Scripture verses. They teach correct formations over Days 1-4, copying the words in a Bible verse, and then culminating in Day five in which they write the whole Bible verse on a Scripture Border Sheet. This program covers how to teach writing concentrating on both the letter formations and words but at the same time, learning Scripture.
1. Copying words.
Once your child has begun to form their letters, let them copy some easy words.- This can be done in a variety of ways- begin an alphabet book with cut out or drawn pictures of the letter, and the child can copy the appropriate word under the picture. Number books – copying the words and drawing the correct number. Colour books. Family books – writing the names of the members of the family under photos. Journals – a drawing of their experience with your writing, out of which they copy a few words. The ideas are endless.
At this time, you can begin to enjoy the whole idea of lapbooks and very simple ideas of fold-outs for delightful projects, in which the child can write a few words here and there. These can be a very enjoyable way how you can teach writing in the context of other subjects.
2. Copying sentences – copying punctuation.
As your child becomes ready to copy more than just one word, they can copy sentences. From the beginning, a high standard must be set. The books they create must be treated as a very special keepsake, and so all their work, must be done in the best manner possible. I would write my sentence on their page and they would copy the words exactly under what I have written. Now they need to understand that each word needs its own space. The beauty of copying is that you do not need anything apart from what you are already using. Copying is an extension of whatever the child is listening to. Copywork should come from the most excellent literature, and therefore, the Bible is an excellent source. My children have always had a small Bible Copybook in which they copy the Bible verses which they are memorizing. In this way you can focus on how to teach writing at the same time as learning scripture.
Apart from our Bible Copybook, we have a Writing Treasure which is a blank notebook (Art book) into which they copy poetry and excerpts from literature.
Through the years, I have selected poems, which I would like all of my children to have in their Writing Treasures, and organized them year by year. Sometimes, we all add the same poem, but mostly the children are working on their own poems. The Literature they include in their Writing Treasures are from the books we are reading. It may be an historical fiction novel, a biography or another excellent source of literature. We copy Aesop’s fables from time to time also.
Is there a way to teach writing skills such as punctuation, correct spelling, use of quotation marks and so on in a simple approach?
Copybook is a very effortless way of teaching a number of things. It is an easy way to teach correct punctuation. The child needs to copy exactly what you have written and so they need to copy the capital letter and the fullstop. As the difficulty of the passage increases, there are other aspects of punctuation to be taught in the context of real writing- commas, quotation marks, semi-colons, colons and so on.
Another benefit of simple copying is that children are seeing words written correctly, and are copying them in correct spelling. They may not be reading fluently, yet their eyes are constantly observing how letter patterns are formed, and also subconsciously realizing that there are no patterns of d followed by b, or t followed by f and so on.
3. Writing from Dictation.
Here I have the theory, but I find it hard to put into practice. Ideally, we copy a passage on Monday and write it from dictation on Tuesday. For some reason, this theory is very hard to put into practice. I do believe in the value of it though.
Dictation is simply the teacher saying the passage out loud and the student writing it. At first, you will need to re-inforce the punctuation of a sentence and this is part of the learning process. “Remember, when we begin a sentence we begin with a capital letter. The first word I want you to write is ‘The’. ‘The’ begins with a ‘t’, so make sure your first letter is a capital.” This procedure must also take place with the introduction of every new concept. As time goes on, the child will not need your prompting and you can introduce the dictation time by saying that this will be a test to see if they know how to begin and end a sentence.
I have read of others who copy a passage on one day, and then the child either writes the passage from memory the next day, checks and corrects it or writes it from dictation, checks and corrects it. This is continued through the week, until the passage is written correctly. By this time, the passage is mostly stored in their memory also. I have not used dictation in this way, but I am tempted to give it a go, because it works not only on good writing mechanics, but also forces precise memory skills. Each week, they would be memorizing an excellent excerpt of literature or the Bible. That’s worthwhile!
4. Copying larger selections.
You can continue to teach writing by selecting larger and more difficult passages and including different forms of writing. (letters, essays, poems, argumentative essays, speeches, sermons)
5. Writing from Dictation of large selections.
The selections of writing and the level of difficulty can increase as the child matures in their ability. It is very important that you train your child to listen very carefully to the passage being dictated and only repeat the line twice so that they must pay attention. I have also taped my dictation passages (as I do my spelling lists) and given it to them to listen to and write. This also frees you up to attend to another child.
6. Copying own narrations.
Narration is the simple tool of asking your child to “narrate” or “Tell back” to you whatever he or she has read or listened to. Narration is so simple and so effective. You can and should begin to ask your child to narrate when they are very young and continue to do so. At a young age, you can ask them what the story was about and you would physically write their words on paper for them. They may illustrate the page. Alternatively, you may decide to type it for them. As their writing skills increase they can copy their own narration. I would suggest that this is initially done by writing their own words on a paper and leaving a line for them to copy the words directly underneath. When that skill is achieved, they may be able to copy their own narration from the board, or from a separate piece of paper.
Narration is an excellent tool. It forces the child to organize their thoughts. They need to sequence ideas and construct sentences. They need to draw on their memory and learn to express their thoughts. They need to choose words carefully and a child who has listened intently will often repeat the colourful language he has just heard. This increases their own vocabulary. Not every narration needs to be written down. It is firstly an oral skill, an extremely important oral skill which is needed as a precursor for writing.
7. Writing own narrations.
Narration can be done in many ways. It is a way to teach writing across all subject areas. It is the most effectual tool to see what your child has learned after they have read (or listened to) an assigned passage from a Science book, Historical fiction novel, History Text, or Literature. However, it can be used wherever reading takes place. Your child may be reading about nouns in a grammar text. You may ask him to read the information and then tell you all the sorts of nouns there are (i.e. common, proper, abstract…) The narration can be as broad or as specific as you desire. You can ask about what happened (broad) or ask them to describe how 'Character A' felt after…..(specific). Here are some Creative Writing Prompts or Narration Starters from Literature- Questions to ask after a literature reading or whole book.
In our home, my children have narrated to me since they were very little- as soon as they can talk, they can "tell" things back to you. You can ask them to tell you about any story or poem you read – from early nursery rhymes to fairy tales. Depending on the time available, their narrations may be written out into special books or may just be an oral narration. Even when your child narrates orally, you are still teaching writing skills.
We usually begin by narrating their own Bible Story Book. As we read the Bible stories, they narrate what happened and I copy their words into their own book. I use A4 Visual Arts Diaries for most of their subject areas, and I write the narration and they illustrate it. The beauty of this is that they have their own Bible Story book written by them and a lovely keepsake for themselves. This can also be done with Aesop’s fables – and made into a book.
Most of the time a child can be prompted to narrate by just asking the child to tell what the passage was about. Sometimes, however, another prompt may be needed. There are many different creative writing prompts or narration starters which can help your child to begin a narration.
8. How to Teach Writing with Style.
Style is all about learning how to write effectively and with clarity. A child who has been taught to narrate from early on, has already learned to sequence and construct sentences and thoughts. This is a fantastic advantage.
Teaching Writing: Structure and Style is a video seminar for teachers and parents presenting a system of structural models and stylistic techniques applicable for students of all ages and aptitudes
Stylistic elements add interest to writing.Adding stylistic elements in order to teach writing are ways of enhancing your writing and adding variety. I have a specific writing lesson every week and in this time slot, I slowly build on the list of elements we can use to add interest to our writing. It is too overwhelming to deal with all the elements at once, but when they are introduced slowly and referred to each week, they can become a part of your child’s writing
Teach Writing Forms.
All the above steps deal with how to teach writing mechanics. It is also important to know how to teach writing Forms. Here children can find the type of writing in which they can shine. Writing is fun and exciting, a way to explore words, and inspire others. By teaching different forms of writing, the child can experiment with letter writing, poetry, play-writing, advertising, essays and so on.
Minggu, 11 April 2010
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
James Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR), is the one we will examine in detail here in order to see how the principles of the Comprehension Approach are put into practice. On the basis of his research, Asher reasoned that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is follow directions uttered by the instructor.
Total physical response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James J. Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University, to aid learning second languages. The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language, language is internalized through a process of code breaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement. TPR is primarily intended for ESL/EAL teachers, although the method is used in teaching other languages as well. The method became popular in the 1970s and attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers, but it has not received generalized support from mainstream educators.
TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how infants internalize their first language.
The secret is a unique "conversation" between the parent and infant. For example, the first conversation is a parent saying, "Look at daddy. Look at daddy." The infant's face turns in the direction of the voice and daddy exclaims, "She's looking at me! She's looking at me!" Dr. Asher calls this "a language-body conversation" because the parent speaks and the infant answers with a physical response such as looking, smiling, laughing, turning, walking, reaching, grasping, holding, sitting, running, and so forth.
Notice that these "conversations" continue for many months before the child utters anything more intelligible than "mommy" or "daddy." Although the infant is not yet speaking, the child is imprinting a linguistic map of how the language works. Silently, the child is internalizing the patterns and sounds of the target language.
When the child has decoded enough of the target language, speaking appears spontaneously. The infant's speech will not be perfect, but gradually, the child's utterances will approximate more and more that of a native speaker.
Children and adults experience the thrill of immediate understanding when you apply this powerful concept in your classroom. To discover how to do it step-by-step, take a look through our TPR catalog of Books, Games, Teacher Kits, Student Kits, and Video Demonstrations.
James Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR), is the one we will examine in detail here in order to see how the principles of the Comprehension Approach are put into practice. On the basis of his research, Asher reasoned that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is follow directions uttered by the instructor.
Total physical response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James J. Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University, to aid learning second languages. The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language, language is internalized through a process of code breaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement. TPR is primarily intended for ESL/EAL teachers, although the method is used in teaching other languages as well. The method became popular in the 1970s and attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers, but it has not received generalized support from mainstream educators.
TPR is based on the premise that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how infants internalize their first language.
The secret is a unique "conversation" between the parent and infant. For example, the first conversation is a parent saying, "Look at daddy. Look at daddy." The infant's face turns in the direction of the voice and daddy exclaims, "She's looking at me! She's looking at me!" Dr. Asher calls this "a language-body conversation" because the parent speaks and the infant answers with a physical response such as looking, smiling, laughing, turning, walking, reaching, grasping, holding, sitting, running, and so forth.
Notice that these "conversations" continue for many months before the child utters anything more intelligible than "mommy" or "daddy." Although the infant is not yet speaking, the child is imprinting a linguistic map of how the language works. Silently, the child is internalizing the patterns and sounds of the target language.
When the child has decoded enough of the target language, speaking appears spontaneously. The infant's speech will not be perfect, but gradually, the child's utterances will approximate more and more that of a native speaker.
Children and adults experience the thrill of immediate understanding when you apply this powerful concept in your classroom. To discover how to do it step-by-step, take a look through our TPR catalog of Books, Games, Teacher Kits, Student Kits, and Video Demonstrations.
Jumat, 02 April 2010
Community Language Learning
Community language learning (CLL) is an approach in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. The teacher acts as a counselor and a paraphrase, while the learner acts as a collaborator, although sometimes this role can be changed. The Community Language Learning Method takes its principles from the more general Counseling-Learning approach developed by Charles A. Curran. Curran believed that a way to deal with the fears of students is for to teachers to become ‘Language Counselors.’ A language counselor does not mean someone trained in psychology; it means someone who is a skillful under stander of the struggle students’ face as they attempt to internalize another language. The teacher who can ‘understand’ can indicate his acceptance of the student. By understanding students’ fears and being sensitive to them, he can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive energy to further their learning.
Rabu, 24 Maret 2010
summary of Desuggestopedia
Summary of Desuggestopedia
INTRODUCTION
Suggestopedia is now called Desuggestopedia to reflect the importance placed on desuggesting limitations on learning (Lozanov and Miller, personal communication). The originators of this method, Georgi Lozanov, believes as does Silent Way’s Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a a much faster rate than ordinarily transpires. Desuggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful or the negative association they may have toward studying and, thus, to help them overcome the barriers to learning.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1. What are the goals of teachers who use Desuggestopedia?
Teachers hope to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. In order to do this, more of the students’ mental powers must be tapped.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The teacher is an authority in the classroom. In order for the method to be successful, the students must trust and respect her. Once the students trust the teacher, they can feel more secure. If they feel secure, they can be more spontaneous and less inhibited.
3. What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process?
A Desuggestopedia course is conducted in a classroom which is bright and cheerful. Students select target language names and choose new occupations. The texts student work from handouts containing lengthy dialogs (as many as 800 words) in the target language. The teacher presents the dialog during two concerts which comprise the first major phase (the receptive phase).
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?
The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of students and with individuals’ right from the beginning of a language course.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
It is considered important in this method that the psychological barriers that students bring with then be desuggested.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language is the first of two planes in the two-plane process of communication. In the second plane are the factors which influence the linguistic message. The culture which students learn concerns the everyday life of people who speak the language.
7. What areas of language emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary is emphasized. Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally. Speaking communicatively is emphasized. Students also read in the target language and write.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
Native-language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialog clear. As the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
Evaluation usually is conducted on the students’ normal in-class performance and not through formal tests.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES AND THE CLASSROOM SET-UP
Classroom set-up
The challenge for the teacher is to create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. These conditions are not always possible. However, the teacher should try to provide as positive an environment as possible.
Peripheral learning
This technique is based upon the idea that we perceive much more in our environment than that to which we consciously attend. It is claimed that, by putting posters containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom walls, students will absorb the necessary facts effortlessly.
Positive suggestion
It is the teacher’s responsibility to orchestrate the suggestive factors in a learning situation, thereby helping students break down the barriers to learning that they bring with them.
Choose a new identity
The students choose a target language name and a new occupation. The students have an opportunity to develop a whole biography about their fictional selves.
Role play
Students are asked to pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person.
First concert (active concert)
The two concerts are components of the receptive phase of the lesson. The students have copies of the dialog in the target language and their native language and refer to it as the teacher reading. Music is played. After a few minutes, the teacher begins a slow, dramatic reading, synchronized in intonation with the music.
Second concert (passive concert)
In the second phase, the students are asked to put their script aside. They simply listen as the teacher reads the dialog at a normal rate of speed. At the conclusion if this concert, the class ends for the day.
Primary activation
The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups. In the lesson we observed, three groups of students read parts of the dialog in a particular manner: the first group, sadly; the next, angrily; the last, cheerful.
Creative adaptation
The students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously. The important thing is that the activities are varied and do not allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent.
INTRODUCTION
Suggestopedia is now called Desuggestopedia to reflect the importance placed on desuggesting limitations on learning (Lozanov and Miller, personal communication). The originators of this method, Georgi Lozanov, believes as does Silent Way’s Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a a much faster rate than ordinarily transpires. Desuggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful or the negative association they may have toward studying and, thus, to help them overcome the barriers to learning.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1. What are the goals of teachers who use Desuggestopedia?
Teachers hope to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. In order to do this, more of the students’ mental powers must be tapped.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The teacher is an authority in the classroom. In order for the method to be successful, the students must trust and respect her. Once the students trust the teacher, they can feel more secure. If they feel secure, they can be more spontaneous and less inhibited.
3. What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process?
A Desuggestopedia course is conducted in a classroom which is bright and cheerful. Students select target language names and choose new occupations. The texts student work from handouts containing lengthy dialogs (as many as 800 words) in the target language. The teacher presents the dialog during two concerts which comprise the first major phase (the receptive phase).
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?
The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of students and with individuals’ right from the beginning of a language course.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
It is considered important in this method that the psychological barriers that students bring with then be desuggested.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language is the first of two planes in the two-plane process of communication. In the second plane are the factors which influence the linguistic message. The culture which students learn concerns the everyday life of people who speak the language.
7. What areas of language emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary is emphasized. Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally. Speaking communicatively is emphasized. Students also read in the target language and write.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
Native-language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialog clear. As the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
Evaluation usually is conducted on the students’ normal in-class performance and not through formal tests.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES AND THE CLASSROOM SET-UP
Classroom set-up
The challenge for the teacher is to create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. These conditions are not always possible. However, the teacher should try to provide as positive an environment as possible.
Peripheral learning
This technique is based upon the idea that we perceive much more in our environment than that to which we consciously attend. It is claimed that, by putting posters containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom walls, students will absorb the necessary facts effortlessly.
Positive suggestion
It is the teacher’s responsibility to orchestrate the suggestive factors in a learning situation, thereby helping students break down the barriers to learning that they bring with them.
Choose a new identity
The students choose a target language name and a new occupation. The students have an opportunity to develop a whole biography about their fictional selves.
Role play
Students are asked to pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person.
First concert (active concert)
The two concerts are components of the receptive phase of the lesson. The students have copies of the dialog in the target language and their native language and refer to it as the teacher reading. Music is played. After a few minutes, the teacher begins a slow, dramatic reading, synchronized in intonation with the music.
Second concert (passive concert)
In the second phase, the students are asked to put their script aside. They simply listen as the teacher reads the dialog at a normal rate of speed. At the conclusion if this concert, the class ends for the day.
Primary activation
The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups. In the lesson we observed, three groups of students read parts of the dialog in a particular manner: the first group, sadly; the next, angrily; the last, cheerful.
Creative adaptation
The students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously. The important thing is that the activities are varied and do not allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent.
Senin, 22 Maret 2010
suggestopedia
Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. The method has been used in different fields of studies but mostly in the field of foreign language learning.
Lozanov says that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods. However, it is not limited to the learning of languages, but language learning was found to be a process in which one can easily measure how much and how fast something is learned.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” [1] Suggestopedia is used in six major foreign-language teaching methods known to language teaching experts (the oldest being the grammar translation method.) The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy. Many discussions and misunderstanding have caused this name because people connects the word "suggestion" to "hypnosis". There are many different definitions for the word "suggestion". When Dr. Lozanov chose this word, he was thinking about the English meaning: TO SUGGEST = TO OFFER, TO PROPOSE (BUT THE STUDENTS ARE FREE TO CHOOSE).
Lozanov says that by using this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as conventional methods. However, it is not limited to the learning of languages, but language learning was found to be a process in which one can easily measure how much and how fast something is learned.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is often called “desuggestopedia.” [1] Suggestopedia is used in six major foreign-language teaching methods known to language teaching experts (the oldest being the grammar translation method.) The name of Suggestopedia is from the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy. Many discussions and misunderstanding have caused this name because people connects the word "suggestion" to "hypnosis". There are many different definitions for the word "suggestion". When Dr. Lozanov chose this word, he was thinking about the English meaning: TO SUGGEST = TO OFFER, TO PROPOSE (BUT THE STUDENTS ARE FREE TO CHOOSE).
Kamis, 18 Maret 2010
Comparison between the Audio-Lingual Method and the Silent Way
Comparison between the Audio-Lingual Method and the Silent Way
INTRODUCTION
The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method we have just examined, is also an oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that rather than emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situation, the Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use grammatical sentence patterns. It also, unlike the Direct Method, has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology/ Charles Fries (1945) of the University of Michigan led the way in applying principles from structural linguistics in developing the method, and for this reason, it has sometimes been referred to as the ‘Michigan Method’. Although people did learn languages through the Audio-Lingual Method, one problem with it was students’ inability to readily transfer habits they had mastered in the classroom to communicative use outside it. Furthermore, the idea that learning a language meant forming a set of habits was seriously challenged in the early 1960s.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Audio-Lingual Method and the Silent Way?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively. They believe students need to over learn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think.
For the Silent Way, Students should be able to use the language for self-expression-to express their thought, perceptions, and feelings. Students become independent by relying on themselves.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior of her students. Students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes she supplies of model speakers.
For the Silent Way, the teacher is technician or engineer. The teacher should respect the autonomy of the learners in their attempts at relating and interacting with the new challenges.
3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, new vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs. The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition. Drills (such as repetition, backward build-up, chain, substitution, transformation, and question-and-answer) are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog. Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided.
For the Silent Way, Students begin their study of the language through its basic building blocks, its sounds. The teacher sets up situations that focus student attention on the structures of the language. The teacher works with them, striving for pronunciation that would be intelligible to a native speakers of the target language.
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, there is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when student take different roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher.
For the Silent Way, the student-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. When the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language. Student-student verbal interaction is desirable and is therefore encouraged.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, there are no principles of the method that relate to this area.
For the Silent Way, the teacher constantly observes the students. The teacher takes what they say into consideration and works with the student to help them overcome negative feelings which might otherwise interfere with their learning.
6. How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the view of language in the Audio-Lingual Method has been influenced by descriptive linguists. The system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, morphological, and syntactic. Culture consists of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers.
For the Silent Way, languages of the world share a number of features. Their culture, as reflected in their own unique world view, is inseparable from their language.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering the sound system and grammatical patterns. A grammatical pattern is not the same as a sentence. The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
For the Silent Way, vocabulary is somewhat restricted at first. There is no fixed, linear, structural syllabus. The syllabus develops according to learning needs.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the habits of the students’ native language are thought to interfere with the students’ attempts to master the target language.
For the Silent Way, the students’ native language can, however, be used to give instructions when necessary, to help a student improve his or her pronunciation, for instance. The native language is also used during the feedback sessions.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the answer to this question is not obvious because we did not actually observe the students in this class taking a formal test.
For the Silent Way, although the teacher may never give a formal test, he assesses student learning all the time. Since ‘teaching is subordinated to learning, ’the teacher must be responsive to immediate learning needs. The needs will be apparent to a teacher who is observant of his students’ behavior.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.
For the Silent Way, the teacher uses student errors as a basis for deciding where further work is necessary.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES the Audio-Lingual Method
Dialog memorization
Dialogs or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson. Students memorize the dialog through mimicry; students usually take the role of one person in the dialog, and the teacher the other. In the Audio-Lingual Method, certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialog. These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the lines of the dialog.
Backward build-up (expansion) drill
This drill is used when a long line of a dialog is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line.
Repetition drills
Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible.
Chain drill
A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. A chain drill allows some controlled communication, even though it is limited. A chain drill also gives the teacher an opportunity to check each student’s speech.
Single-slot substitution drill
The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase-called a cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place.
Multiple-slot substitution drill
This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog line.
Transformation drill
The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern, an affirmative sentence for example. Students are asked to transform this sentence into a negative sentence.
Question-and-answer drill
This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students should answer the teacher’s questions very quickly.
Use of minimal pairs
The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one should; for example, ‘ship/sheep.’
Complete the dialog
Selected words are erased from a dialog students have learned. Students complete the dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words.
Grammar game
Games like the supermarket alphabet game described in this chapter are used in the Audio-Lingual Method. The games are designed to get students to practice a grammar point within a context.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES AND THE MATERIALS the Silent Way
Sound-color chart
The chart contains blocks of color, each one representing a sound in the target language. The teacher, and later the students, points to blocks of color on the chart to form syllables, words, and even sentences. The chart allows students to produce sound combinations in the target language without doing so through repetition. The chart draws the students’ attention and allows them to concentrate on the language, not on the teacher.
Teacher’s silence
The teacher gives just as much help as is necessary and then is silent.
Peer correction
Students are encouraged to help another student when he or she is experiencing difficulty. It is important that any help be offered in a cooperative manner, not a competitive one.
Rods
Rods can be used to provide visible actions or situations for any language structure, to introduce it, or to enable students to practice using it. The rods trigger meaning: Situations with the rods can be created in such a way that the meaning is made clear; then the language is connected to the meaning. The rods are therefore very versatile. They can be used as rods or more abstractly to represent other realities. They allow students to be creative and imaginative, and they allow for action to accompany language.
Self-correction gestures
Some of the particular gestures of the Silent Way could be added to this list. For example, in the class observed, the teacher put his palms together and then moved them outwards to signal to students the need to lengthen the particular vowel they were working on.
Word chart
The teacher, and later the students, points to words on the wall chart in a sequence so that they can read aloud the sentences they have spoken. There are twelve English charts containing about 500 words. The charts contain the functional vocabulary of English.
Fidel charts
The teacher, and later the students, point to the color-coded Fidel charts in order that students associate the sounds of the language with their spelling. There are a number of charts available in other languages as well.
Structured feedback
Students are invited to make observations about the day’s lesson and what they have learned. The teacher accepts the students’ comments in a no defensive manner, hearing things that will help give him direction for where he should work when the class meets again.
INTRODUCTION
The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method we have just examined, is also an oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that rather than emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situation, the Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use grammatical sentence patterns. It also, unlike the Direct Method, has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology/ Charles Fries (1945) of the University of Michigan led the way in applying principles from structural linguistics in developing the method, and for this reason, it has sometimes been referred to as the ‘Michigan Method’. Although people did learn languages through the Audio-Lingual Method, one problem with it was students’ inability to readily transfer habits they had mastered in the classroom to communicative use outside it. Furthermore, the idea that learning a language meant forming a set of habits was seriously challenged in the early 1960s.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Audio-Lingual Method and the Silent Way?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively. They believe students need to over learn the target language, to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think.
For the Silent Way, Students should be able to use the language for self-expression-to express their thought, perceptions, and feelings. Students become independent by relying on themselves.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior of her students. Students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes she supplies of model speakers.
For the Silent Way, the teacher is technician or engineer. The teacher should respect the autonomy of the learners in their attempts at relating and interacting with the new challenges.
3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, new vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs. The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition. Drills (such as repetition, backward build-up, chain, substitution, transformation, and question-and-answer) are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog. Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided.
For the Silent Way, Students begin their study of the language through its basic building blocks, its sounds. The teacher sets up situations that focus student attention on the structures of the language. The teacher works with them, striving for pronunciation that would be intelligible to a native speakers of the target language.
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, there is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when student take different roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher.
For the Silent Way, the student-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. When the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language. Student-student verbal interaction is desirable and is therefore encouraged.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, there are no principles of the method that relate to this area.
For the Silent Way, the teacher constantly observes the students. The teacher takes what they say into consideration and works with the student to help them overcome negative feelings which might otherwise interfere with their learning.
6. How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the view of language in the Audio-Lingual Method has been influenced by descriptive linguists. The system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, morphological, and syntactic. Culture consists of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers.
For the Silent Way, languages of the world share a number of features. Their culture, as reflected in their own unique world view, is inseparable from their language.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering the sound system and grammatical patterns. A grammatical pattern is not the same as a sentence. The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
For the Silent Way, vocabulary is somewhat restricted at first. There is no fixed, linear, structural syllabus. The syllabus develops according to learning needs.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the habits of the students’ native language are thought to interfere with the students’ attempts to master the target language.
For the Silent Way, the students’ native language can, however, be used to give instructions when necessary, to help a student improve his or her pronunciation, for instance. The native language is also used during the feedback sessions.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, the answer to this question is not obvious because we did not actually observe the students in this class taking a formal test.
For the Silent Way, although the teacher may never give a formal test, he assesses student learning all the time. Since ‘teaching is subordinated to learning, ’the teacher must be responsive to immediate learning needs. The needs will be apparent to a teacher who is observant of his students’ behavior.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
For the Audio-Lingual Method, student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.
For the Silent Way, the teacher uses student errors as a basis for deciding where further work is necessary.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES the Audio-Lingual Method
Dialog memorization
Dialogs or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson. Students memorize the dialog through mimicry; students usually take the role of one person in the dialog, and the teacher the other. In the Audio-Lingual Method, certain sentence patterns and grammar points are included within the dialog. These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the lines of the dialog.
Backward build-up (expansion) drill
This drill is used when a long line of a dialog is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line.
Repetition drills
Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible.
Chain drill
A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. A chain drill allows some controlled communication, even though it is limited. A chain drill also gives the teacher an opportunity to check each student’s speech.
Single-slot substitution drill
The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase-called a cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place.
Multiple-slot substitution drill
This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog line.
Transformation drill
The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern, an affirmative sentence for example. Students are asked to transform this sentence into a negative sentence.
Question-and-answer drill
This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students should answer the teacher’s questions very quickly.
Use of minimal pairs
The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one should; for example, ‘ship/sheep.’
Complete the dialog
Selected words are erased from a dialog students have learned. Students complete the dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words.
Grammar game
Games like the supermarket alphabet game described in this chapter are used in the Audio-Lingual Method. The games are designed to get students to practice a grammar point within a context.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES AND THE MATERIALS the Silent Way
Sound-color chart
The chart contains blocks of color, each one representing a sound in the target language. The teacher, and later the students, points to blocks of color on the chart to form syllables, words, and even sentences. The chart allows students to produce sound combinations in the target language without doing so through repetition. The chart draws the students’ attention and allows them to concentrate on the language, not on the teacher.
Teacher’s silence
The teacher gives just as much help as is necessary and then is silent.
Peer correction
Students are encouraged to help another student when he or she is experiencing difficulty. It is important that any help be offered in a cooperative manner, not a competitive one.
Rods
Rods can be used to provide visible actions or situations for any language structure, to introduce it, or to enable students to practice using it. The rods trigger meaning: Situations with the rods can be created in such a way that the meaning is made clear; then the language is connected to the meaning. The rods are therefore very versatile. They can be used as rods or more abstractly to represent other realities. They allow students to be creative and imaginative, and they allow for action to accompany language.
Self-correction gestures
Some of the particular gestures of the Silent Way could be added to this list. For example, in the class observed, the teacher put his palms together and then moved them outwards to signal to students the need to lengthen the particular vowel they were working on.
Word chart
The teacher, and later the students, points to words on the wall chart in a sequence so that they can read aloud the sentences they have spoken. There are twelve English charts containing about 500 words. The charts contain the functional vocabulary of English.
Fidel charts
The teacher, and later the students, point to the color-coded Fidel charts in order that students associate the sounds of the language with their spelling. There are a number of charts available in other languages as well.
Structured feedback
Students are invited to make observations about the day’s lesson and what they have learned. The teacher accepts the students’ comments in a no defensive manner, hearing things that will help give him direction for where he should work when the class meets again.
Sabtu, 13 Maret 2010
Rangkuman The Direct Method
The Direct Method
INTRODUCTION
As with The Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new. Its principles have been applied by language teachers for many years. Most recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of instruction become learning how to use a foreign language to communicate. The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
Consider the principles of the Direct Method as they are arranged in answer to the ten questions posed earlier:
1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Direct Method?
Teachers who use the Direct Method intend that students learn how to communicate in the target language. In order to do this successfully, students should learn to think in the target language.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
Although the teacher directs the class activities, the student role is less passive than in The Grammar-Translation Method. The teacher and the students are more like partners in the teaching/learning process.
3. What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process?
Students need to associate meaning and the target language directly. In order to do this, when the teacher introduces a new target language word or phrase, he demonstrates its meaning through the use of regalia, pictures, or pantomime; he never translate in into the students’ native language. In fact, the syllabus used in the Direct Method is based upon situations or topics. Grammar is taught inductively; that is the students are presented with examples and they figure out the rule or generalization from the examples.
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?
The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to students and from student to teacher, although the latter is often teacher-directed. Students converse with one another as well.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
There are no principles of the method which relate it this area.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language is primarily spoken, not written. Therefore, students study common, everyday speech in the target language. They also study culture consisting of the history of the people, the geography of the country, and information about the daily lives.
7. What areas of language emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although work on all four skills (reading, written, speaking, and listening) occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
The students’ native language should not be used in the classroom.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
In the Direct Method, students are asked to the language, not to demonstrate their knowledge about the language.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
The teacher, employing various techniques, tries to get student yo self-correct whenever possible.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES
The following expanded review of techniques provides you with some details which will help you do this.
Reading Aloud
Students take turns reading section of passage, play, or dialog out loud. At the end of each student’s turn, the teacher uses gestures, pictures, regalia, examples, or other means to make the meaning of the section clear.
Question and answer exercise
This exercise is conducted only in the target language. Students are asked questions and answer in full sentence so that they practice new words and grammatical structures.
Getting students to self-correct
The teacher of this class has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said an alternative answer he supplied. There are, however, other ways of getting students to self-correct. Another possibility is for the teacher to repeat what the student said, stopping just before the errors.
Conversation practice
The teacher asks students a number of questions in the target language, which the students have to understand to be able to answer correctly. The questions contained a particular grammar structure.
Fill-in-the-blanks exercise
All the items are in the target language; furthermore, no explicit grammar rule would be applied.
Dictation
The teacher reads the passage three times. The first time the teacher reads it at normal speed, the second time reads the passage phrase by phrase, the last time the teacher again reads at a normal speed.
Map drawing
The class included one example of a technique used to give students listening comprehensive practice.
Paragraph writing
The teacher in this class asked the students to write a paragraph in their own words on the major geographical features of the United States.
INTRODUCTION
As with The Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new. Its principles have been applied by language teachers for many years. Most recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of instruction become learning how to use a foreign language to communicate. The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
Consider the principles of the Direct Method as they are arranged in answer to the ten questions posed earlier:
1. What are the goals of teachers who use the Direct Method?
Teachers who use the Direct Method intend that students learn how to communicate in the target language. In order to do this successfully, students should learn to think in the target language.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
Although the teacher directs the class activities, the student role is less passive than in The Grammar-Translation Method. The teacher and the students are more like partners in the teaching/learning process.
3. What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process?
Students need to associate meaning and the target language directly. In order to do this, when the teacher introduces a new target language word or phrase, he demonstrates its meaning through the use of regalia, pictures, or pantomime; he never translate in into the students’ native language. In fact, the syllabus used in the Direct Method is based upon situations or topics. Grammar is taught inductively; that is the students are presented with examples and they figure out the rule or generalization from the examples.
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?
The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to students and from student to teacher, although the latter is often teacher-directed. Students converse with one another as well.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
There are no principles of the method which relate it this area.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language is primarily spoken, not written. Therefore, students study common, everyday speech in the target language. They also study culture consisting of the history of the people, the geography of the country, and information about the daily lives.
7. What areas of language emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Although work on all four skills (reading, written, speaking, and listening) occurs from the start, oral communication is seen as basic.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
The students’ native language should not be used in the classroom.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
In the Direct Method, students are asked to the language, not to demonstrate their knowledge about the language.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
The teacher, employing various techniques, tries to get student yo self-correct whenever possible.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES
The following expanded review of techniques provides you with some details which will help you do this.
Reading Aloud
Students take turns reading section of passage, play, or dialog out loud. At the end of each student’s turn, the teacher uses gestures, pictures, regalia, examples, or other means to make the meaning of the section clear.
Question and answer exercise
This exercise is conducted only in the target language. Students are asked questions and answer in full sentence so that they practice new words and grammatical structures.
Getting students to self-correct
The teacher of this class has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said an alternative answer he supplied. There are, however, other ways of getting students to self-correct. Another possibility is for the teacher to repeat what the student said, stopping just before the errors.
Conversation practice
The teacher asks students a number of questions in the target language, which the students have to understand to be able to answer correctly. The questions contained a particular grammar structure.
Fill-in-the-blanks exercise
All the items are in the target language; furthermore, no explicit grammar rule would be applied.
Dictation
The teacher reads the passage three times. The first time the teacher reads it at normal speed, the second time reads the passage phrase by phrase, the last time the teacher again reads at a normal speed.
Map drawing
The class included one example of a technique used to give students listening comprehensive practice.
Paragraph writing
The teacher in this class asked the students to write a paragraph in their own words on the major geographical features of the United States.
Rabu, 03 Maret 2010
Flash Disk
Tips Tingkatkan Performa Flash Disk
Di Windows Me dan Windows 2000, pengoperasian USB flash disk terasa sedikit merepotkan. Anda dipaksa harus mengklik ikon [Safely Remove Hardware] di system tray dan mengklik tombol [Stop] sebelum mencabut piranti USB. Kini, di Windows XP, kewajiban tersebut sudah tidak ada lagi. Anda bisa mencabut flash disk kapan saja selama tidak dalam proses transfer data. Pengoperasian flash disk pun jadi lebih mudah.
Akan tetapi kemudahan tersebut harus dibayar dengan menurunnya performa flash disk. Ini disebabkan karena Windows harus menonaktifkan fitur write cache demi fleksibilitas tadi, sehingga performa harus dikorbankan.
Nah, bagi Anda yang mengutamakan performa flash disk sebagai nomor satu, Anda harus mengaktifkan write cache ini dari Device Manager. Caranya:
1. Klik [Start] > [Control Panel] > [Performance and Maintenance] > [System].
2. Pilih tab [Hardware].
3. Buka jendela Device Manager dengan mengklik tombol [Device Manager].
4. Masuklah ke disk drives, dan klik kanan pada nama USB flash disk.
5. Pilih [Properties].
6. Masuklah ke tab [Policies] kemudian ubah radio button [Optimize for quick removal] menjadi [Optimize for Performance].
7. Tekan [OK], lalu tutup jendela Device Manager dan System Properties.
8. Restart Windows.
Setelah Anda mengaplikasikan trik ini jangan lupa untuk selalu mengklik [Safely Remove Hardware] sebelum mencabut flash disk.
Di Windows Me dan Windows 2000, pengoperasian USB flash disk terasa sedikit merepotkan. Anda dipaksa harus mengklik ikon [Safely Remove Hardware] di system tray dan mengklik tombol [Stop] sebelum mencabut piranti USB. Kini, di Windows XP, kewajiban tersebut sudah tidak ada lagi. Anda bisa mencabut flash disk kapan saja selama tidak dalam proses transfer data. Pengoperasian flash disk pun jadi lebih mudah.
Akan tetapi kemudahan tersebut harus dibayar dengan menurunnya performa flash disk. Ini disebabkan karena Windows harus menonaktifkan fitur write cache demi fleksibilitas tadi, sehingga performa harus dikorbankan.
Nah, bagi Anda yang mengutamakan performa flash disk sebagai nomor satu, Anda harus mengaktifkan write cache ini dari Device Manager. Caranya:
1. Klik [Start] > [Control Panel] > [Performance and Maintenance] > [System].
2. Pilih tab [Hardware].
3. Buka jendela Device Manager dengan mengklik tombol [Device Manager].
4. Masuklah ke disk drives, dan klik kanan pada nama USB flash disk.
5. Pilih [Properties].
6. Masuklah ke tab [Policies] kemudian ubah radio button [Optimize for quick removal] menjadi [Optimize for Performance].
7. Tekan [OK], lalu tutup jendela Device Manager dan System Properties.
8. Restart Windows.
Setelah Anda mengaplikasikan trik ini jangan lupa untuk selalu mengklik [Safely Remove Hardware] sebelum mencabut flash disk.
Windows xp
Mempercepat Windows
Klik start -> Run -> ketik "regedit
Masuk ke-setiap bagian dibawah ini :
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERControl PanelDesktop] --> Ubah sesuai yang dibawah ini..
"AutoEndTasks"="1"
"HungAppTimeout"="3000"
"MenuShowDelay"="0"
"WaitToKillAppTimeout"="3000"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionExplorer]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "DesktopProcess"
--> klik kanan pada item "DesktopProcess" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
--> Delete register yang tidak diperlukan (register yang terdapat didalamnya adalah proses startup yang akan di jalankan setiap kali windows login)
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESOFTWAREMicrosoftWindows NTCurrentVersionWinlogon]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "EnableQuickReboot"
--> klik kanan pada item "EnableQuickReboot" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESYSTEMControlSet001Control]
--> Ubah sesuai dibawah ini ...
"WaitToKillServiceTimeout"="3000"
Klik start -> Run -> ketik "regedit
Masuk ke-setiap bagian dibawah ini :
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERControl PanelDesktop] --> Ubah sesuai yang dibawah ini..
"AutoEndTasks"="1"
"HungAppTimeout"="3000"
"MenuShowDelay"="0"
"WaitToKillAppTimeout"="3000"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionExplorer]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "DesktopProcess"
--> klik kanan pada item "DesktopProcess" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
--> Delete register yang tidak diperlukan (register yang terdapat didalamnya adalah proses startup yang akan di jalankan setiap kali windows login)
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESOFTWAREMicrosoftWindows NTCurrentVersionWinlogon]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "EnableQuickReboot"
--> klik kanan pada item "EnableQuickReboot" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESYSTEMControlSet001Control]
--> Ubah sesuai dibawah ini ...
"WaitToKillServiceTimeout"="3000"
Windows
Mempercepat Windows
Klik start -> Run -> ketik "regedit
Masuk ke-setiap bagian dibawah ini :
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERControl PanelDesktop] --> Ubah sesuai yang dibawah ini..
"AutoEndTasks"="1"
"HungAppTimeout"="3000"
"MenuShowDelay"="0"
"WaitToKillAppTimeout"="3000"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionExplorer]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "DesktopProcess"
--> klik kanan pada item "DesktopProcess" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
--> Delete register yang tidak diperlukan (register yang terdapat didalamnya adalah proses startup yang akan di jalankan setiap kali windows login)
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESOFTWAREMicrosoftWindows NTCurrentVersionWinlogon]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "EnableQuickReboot"
--> klik kanan pada item "EnableQuickReboot" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESYSTEMControlSet001Control]
--> Ubah sesuai dibawah ini ...
"WaitToKillServiceTimeout"="3000"
Klik start -> Run -> ketik "regedit
Masuk ke-setiap bagian dibawah ini :
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERControl PanelDesktop] --> Ubah sesuai yang dibawah ini..
"AutoEndTasks"="1"
"HungAppTimeout"="3000"
"MenuShowDelay"="0"
"WaitToKillAppTimeout"="3000"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionExplorer]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "DesktopProcess"
--> klik kanan pada item "DesktopProcess" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USERSoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESoftwareMicrosoftWindowsCurrentVersionRun]
--> Delete register yang tidak diperlukan (register yang terdapat didalamnya adalah proses startup yang akan di jalankan setiap kali windows login)
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESOFTWAREMicrosoftWindows NTCurrentVersionWinlogon]
--> klik kanan tambahkan DWORD value "EnableQuickReboot"
--> klik kanan pada item "EnableQuickReboot" tadi modify ubah menjadi "1"
[HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINESYSTEMControlSet001Control]
--> Ubah sesuai dibawah ini ...
"WaitToKillServiceTimeout"="3000"
Operating System
Meningkatkan PERFORMA OS
Sistem operasi Windows menggunakan dua memori. Memori utama sistem operasi Windows menggunakan RAM (Random Access Memory). Apabila memori utama ini telah habis dipakai, maka Windows akan membuat memori virtual yang diambil dari sisa kapasitas harddisk. Kondisi yang ideal untuk kapasitas penyimpanan haddisk yaitu 10% disediakan ruang kosong penyimpanan dari total keseluruhan yang terpakai.
Seandainya sebuah komputer memiliki memori utama yang cukup besar, kita dapat memindahkan file inti sistem operasi Windows ke dalam memori utama, dengan cara sebagai berikut :
1. Jalankan editor registry
2. Masukan ke subkey:
My Computer\HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Session Manager\Memory Management\.
3. Klik ganda [DisablePagingExecutive] yang berada di bagian kanan window, lalu isikan 1 sebagai value data.
4. Klik Ok
5. Tutup editor registry dan restrart komputer
Sistem operasi Windows menggunakan dua memori. Memori utama sistem operasi Windows menggunakan RAM (Random Access Memory). Apabila memori utama ini telah habis dipakai, maka Windows akan membuat memori virtual yang diambil dari sisa kapasitas harddisk. Kondisi yang ideal untuk kapasitas penyimpanan haddisk yaitu 10% disediakan ruang kosong penyimpanan dari total keseluruhan yang terpakai.
Seandainya sebuah komputer memiliki memori utama yang cukup besar, kita dapat memindahkan file inti sistem operasi Windows ke dalam memori utama, dengan cara sebagai berikut :
1. Jalankan editor registry
2. Masukan ke subkey:
My Computer\HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Session Manager\Memory Management\.
3. Klik ganda [DisablePagingExecutive] yang berada di bagian kanan window, lalu isikan 1 sebagai value data.
4. Klik Ok
5. Tutup editor registry dan restrart komputer
Senin, 01 Maret 2010
Rangkuman The Grammar-Translation Method
The Grammar-Translation Method
INTRODUCTION
The Grammar-Translation Method is not new. It has had different names, but it has been used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical language, Latin and Greek (Chastain 1988). Earlier in this century, this method was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature. It was also hoped that, through the study of the grammar of the target language, students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
The principles of the Grammar-Translation Method are organized below by answering the ten questions posed in Chapter1 (pages 7-8). Not all the questions are addressed by the Grammar –Translation Method; we will list all the questions, however, so that a comparison among the methods we will study will be easier for you to make.
1. What are the goals of teacher who use the Grammar-Translation Method?
According to the teachers who use the Grammar-Translation Method, a fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in the target language. To do this, students need to learn about the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The roles are very traditional. The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The students do as she says so they can learn what she knows.
3. What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process?
Students are taught to translate from one language to another. Students study grammar deductively; that is, they are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and then are asked to apply the rules to another examples. They also learn grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student
interaction?
Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the students. There is
little student initiation and little student-student interaction.
5. How are the feelings of the student dealt with?
There are no principles of the method which relate to this area.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Literary language is considered superior to spoken language and is therefore the language the students study. Culture is viewed as consisting of literature and the fine arts.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing are the primary skills that student study.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the students’ native language.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
Written tests in which students are asked to translate from their native language to the target language or vice versa are often used.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
Having the student get the correct answer is considered very important. If students make errors or do not know an answer, the teacher supplies them with the correct answer.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES
Translation of a literary passage
Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native language. The reading passage then provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are studied in subsequent lessons.
Reading comprehension questions
Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage.
Antonyms/synonyms
Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. A similar exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a particular set of words.
Cognates
Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. Students are also asked to memorize words that look like cognates but have meaning in the target language that are different from those in the native language.
Deductive application of rule
Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted.
Fill-in-the-blanks
Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type, such as prepositions or verbs with different tenses.
Use words in sentences
In order to show that students understanding the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.
Composition
The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson.
INTRODUCTION
The Grammar-Translation Method is not new. It has had different names, but it has been used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical language, Latin and Greek (Chastain 1988). Earlier in this century, this method was used for the purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign language literature. It was also hoped that, through the study of the grammar of the target language, students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiarity would help them speak and write their native language better.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
The principles of the Grammar-Translation Method are organized below by answering the ten questions posed in Chapter1 (pages 7-8). Not all the questions are addressed by the Grammar –Translation Method; we will list all the questions, however, so that a comparison among the methods we will study will be easier for you to make.
1. What are the goals of teacher who use the Grammar-Translation Method?
According to the teachers who use the Grammar-Translation Method, a fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in the target language. To do this, students need to learn about the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The roles are very traditional. The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The students do as she says so they can learn what she knows.
3. What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process?
Students are taught to translate from one language to another. Students study grammar deductively; that is, they are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and then are asked to apply the rules to another examples. They also learn grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student
interaction?
Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the students. There is
little student initiation and little student-student interaction.
5. How are the feelings of the student dealt with?
There are no principles of the method which relate to this area.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Literary language is considered superior to spoken language and is therefore the language the students study. Culture is viewed as consisting of literature and the fine arts.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing are the primary skills that student study.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the students’ native language.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
Written tests in which students are asked to translate from their native language to the target language or vice versa are often used.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
Having the student get the correct answer is considered very important. If students make errors or do not know an answer, the teacher supplies them with the correct answer.
REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES
Translation of a literary passage
Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native language. The reading passage then provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are studied in subsequent lessons.
Reading comprehension questions
Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage.
Antonyms/synonyms
Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. A similar exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a particular set of words.
Cognates
Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. Students are also asked to memorize words that look like cognates but have meaning in the target language that are different from those in the native language.
Deductive application of rule
Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted.
Fill-in-the-blanks
Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type, such as prepositions or verbs with different tenses.
Use words in sentences
In order to show that students understanding the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new words.
Composition
The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson.
Sabtu, 27 Februari 2010
Tugas Penulisan ke-2 Interaksi belajar mengajar
Hai for all people who fond to skateboarding, in this opportunity I want to give the basic trick for beginner that named “Powerslide”. This is very simple to do, so don’t worry you can’t do it. I will describe “Powerslide” step by step. First, roll along at a moderate speed, take the weight off your front wheels slightly and make the motion of a kickturn but without lifting your wheels off the floor, you have to force your wheels to slide here, so be firm. Second, as you start to turn, bend your knees slightly and lean backward, the aim is to slide your wheels through 90 degrees and then to allow your momentum to force you to skid sideways on. Third, lean back slightly but not too much or you will fall, using your outstretched arms for balance, slide forward as your wheels skid along the ground. Then as you feel your slide slowing down, begin to turn your shoulders to prepare to return to a normal rolling position, you will need to transfer your weight from the sliding position so that your body weight is centered again. Fifth, slide your front wheels back to their original position and continue rolling at a slower speed, you will find that powerslides are much easier to do when you are traveling fast. Sixth, roll along and prepare yourself to repeat the move with more speed. Powerslides feel incredible and, once mastered, will make you a much more competent skater. Congratulate yourself on what you have just accomplished. You now have the know-how to break your speed without ruining your shoes. OK see you on next trick.
Jumat, 19 Februari 2010
Tugas Penulisan 1 Interaksi belajar mengajar
Hai for all Angels and Airwaves lovers,the new album AvA has already released at 14 February 2010 coincide with Valentine's day so the album named LOVE. This is the 3rd album AvA after they released 1st album with title "We Don't It To Whisper" at 23 May 2006 and the 2nd album "I-Empire at 1 November 2007. AvA still exist even Tom Delonge has made reunion tour with his before band Blink 182. You all can download LOVE album in feul tv.com. so what are you waiting for???? Grab all the songs and let's rock!!!!!!
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